Bibliographic details of the publications referred to by author in this specification are collected alphabetically at the end of the description.
Reference to any prior art in this specification is not, and should not be taken as, an acknowledgment or any form of suggestion that this prior art forms part of the common general knowledge in any country.
Of the diseases affecting the systemic vasculature, coronary heart disease remains one of the major causes of premature mortality and morbidity (Lloyd-Jones et al, 2010). Whereas some patients with coronary artery disease experience chronic angina without evident myocardial infarction, other patients may experience myocardial infarction as an initial symptom prior to developing heart failure (HF). As such, coronary artery disease and its sequelae are the cause of approximately 50% of the cases of HF.
HF is an emerging epidemic that claims approximately 10,000 Australian lives each year, with a recent study estimating that there are 500,000 heart failure patients (Clark R A, et al., 2004). The disease burden includes over 1.4 million days of hospitalization at a cost of more than 1 billion dollars [Clarke, 2004]. Globally, approximately 23 million people have HF, which can arise from many causes, including valvular disease, coronary artery disease, coronary occlusive events, hypertension and cardiomyopathy. Most HF patients experience a gradual onset of the disease, with a smaller proportion experiencing a rapid onset of heart failure which is secondary to abnormal cardiac function (acute HF).
Heart failure is the inability of the heart to circulate enough blood to meet the metabolic demands of the body's tissues due to a reduced cardiac output. Heart failure is not a single disease but represents the consequences of a number of disease processes. It can result from any functional or structural disorder and is a principal complication in virtually all forms of heart disease. The ESC (European Society of Cardiology) guidelines (European Heart Journal (2008) 29, 2388-2442) recommend that HF should never be the only diagnosis. Although the two are often used interchangeably, the terms congestive heart failure and HF are not entirely synonymous. Although no definition of HF is entirely satisfactory, essentially it applies to any deficiency of the pumping mechanism of the heart. Congestive heart failure develops when plasma volume increases and fluid accumulates in the lungs, abdominal organs (especially the liver) and/or peripheral tissues in the compensatory response. The ACC/AHA 2007 guidelines state that as not all patients have volume overload, the term heart failure is preferred over the older term congestive heart failure.
Acute heart failure (AHF) is a term used to describe the rapid onset of symptoms secondary to abnormal cardiac function. This can be related to systolic or diastolic dysfunction, pre-load and after-load mismatch and abnormalities in cardiac rhythm. AHF can present as acute de novo AHF (in patients with no previously known cardiac dysfunction) or acute decompensation of chronic heart failure; it requires urgent treatment and is often life-threatening. AHF is characterized by reduced cardiac output, tissue congestion, an increase in pulmonary capillary wedge pressure and tissue hypoperfusion. The underlying mechanisms may induce permanent damage, leading to chronic heart failure, or be transient with the acute syndrome being reversed. Patients with AHF experience a high rate of rehospitalization, which highlights a need for more effective treatments in this area. The ESC guidelines (2005) state that appropriate long-term therapy and, where possible, the anatomical correction of the underlying cause may prevent further AHF attacks and improve the poor long-term prognosis associated with this syndrome.
A patient with AHF may present one of a number of distinct clinical conditions which may differ in severity:                hypertensive AHF: AHF accompanied by high blood pressure and relatively preserved left ventricular function;        left heart failure: with features ranging from breathlessness to frank pulmonary edema accompanied by severe respiratory distress and requiring ventilator support;        cardiogenic shock: the condition is defined as tissue hypoperfusion induced by HF after the correction of preload. Cardiogenic shock is characterized by low blood pressure and/or low urine production, a heart rate of >60 bpm with or without evidence of organ congestion;        high output failure: characterized by high cardiac output, usually with high heart rate, warm peripheries, pulmonary congestion and sometimes with low blood pressure;        right heart failure: characterized by low output syndrome with increase jugular venous pressure, increase liver size and hypotension.        
Chronic heart failure (CHF) is the most common form of heart failure and is difficult to define due to its complex nature. The clinical syndrome may result from disorders of the pericardium, myocardium, endocardium, or great vessels. The resulting reduced cardiac output leads to a decrease in tissue perfusion and perceived volume depletion. The body compensates for this in various ways:                increasing fluid retention (edema);        activating the renin angiotensin system (RAS), which increases blood volume and causes constriction of blood vessels; increasing hormone production, which causes the heart to pump faster and stronger;        hypertrophy of the heart walls, to strengthen pumping ability;        remodeling: enlargement and thinning of the left ventricle, this results in an increased use of oxygen and decreased ejection fraction. A contributing factor is the release of hormones in response to inflammation. This remodeling causes progressive heart cell damage leading to reduced cardiac output and more severe heart disease.        
This compensatory response begins a cycle that contributes to the already failing heart. This would imply that early diagnosis and aggressive treatment are of utmost importance to the successful management of this syndrome.
The diagnosis of HF relies on clinical judgment based on the patient's history, a physical examination, and appropriate investigations. The fundamental manifestations are dyspnea (breathlessness), fatigue and fluid retention which may lead to pulmonary congestion and peripheral edema. The origins of the symptoms of HF are not fully understood, although the understanding has moved from a hemodynamic concept into accepting the importance of neuroendocrine and pathophysiological changes in the progression, as well as the management of HF. Activation of various inflammatory pathways may also contribute to cardiac dysfunction, particularly in more advanced stages.
HF presents with a spectrum of diagnostic criteria and is distinct from cardiac-related conditions such as myocardial infarction, cardiac arrest, and cardiomyopathies although such events can lead to HF (McMurray and Pfeffer, 2005).
HF is associated with significantly reduced physical, mental and behavioural health and results in a significant reduction in the quality of life (Juenger et al, 2002; Hobbs et al., 2002).
HF is generally classified functionally from Class I, requiring no physical limitations on patients to Class IV, where any form of physical activity induces discomfort (Diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Nomenclature and Criteria for diagnosis, 6th ed. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1964; 114). More recently, HF has been graded from Stage A, where patients are at risk of developing HF but appear to exhibit no structural disorder through to Stage D, in advanced cases where patients require hospital-based support, (AHA/ACC HF Guidelines, 2009). Treatment algorithms for HF are generally well developed (AHA/ACC HF Guidelines, 2009) which include the use of a range of pharmacologic drug classes based upon HF stage and severity. In severe stages the use of intravenous positive inotropic therapy is described. Inotropic therapies such as dobutaminc and milrinone improve cardiac output. Milrinone has other advantageous properties including vasodilation.
Milrinone is a phosphodiesterase 3 inhibitor and has been approved for use in the treatment of congestive HF by the FDA. Milrinone lactate is formulated for use following a protocol whereby an intravenous loading dose of 50 μg/kg over 10 minutes, followed by a maintenance infusion of 0.375 to 0.75 μg/kg/minute is recommended for the treatment of congestive HF. The infusion rate should be adjusted according to hemodynamic and clinical response (Prod Info Primacor®). Duration of therapy should depend on patient responsiveness. In a Japanese multi-center dosing study in patients with AHF (n=:54), milrinone continuous infusion doses of 0.25, 0.5, or 0.75 μg/kg (after a loading dose of 50 μg/kg) provided plasma milrinone concentrations of 97, 197, and 284 ng/mL, respectively, after 6 hours, ie, at equilibrium. Plasma milrinone concentrations ranging from 150 to 200 ng/mL have been found to produce significant and sustained inotropic and vasodilating effects. Only the lowest infusion dose (0.25 μg/kg) failed to provide concentrations within the range thought to be effective (Seino et al., 1996).
Milrinone is a bipyridine inotropic agent with a similar chemical structure to amrinone. The chemical name of milrinone is 1,6-dihydro-2-methyl-6-oxo-(3,4-bipyridine)-5-carbonitrile (Baim et al., 1983). The inotropic potency of milrinone is approximately 20 times that of amrinone on a weight basis (Alousi et al., 1986). Milrinone has been well tolerated, intravenously, in phase I and phase II studies, and appears to lack the side effects seen with amrinone (fever, thrombocytopenia) (Baim et al., 1983). Milrinone possesses inotropic, lusitropic, and vasodilator properties. These properties are clinically advantageous in congestive HF; they allow maximal improvement in hemodynamic performance without excessively increasing myocardial oxygen demand (Baim et al., 1983).
Milrinone exerts its vasodilatory action by selectively inhibiting cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-specific phosphodiesterase III isoenzyme in cardiac and smooth vascular muscle. The increase in vascular muscle AMP facilitates calcium uptake by the sarcoplasmic reticulum, thereby reducing calcium stores available for myofibril contraction, with subsequent reduction of vascular tone (Arakawa et al., 2001).
The primary mechanism of action of milrinone appears to be related, at least in part, to phosphodiesterase inhibition and resultant increases in intracellular cyclic AMP, which improves calcium handling (Colucci, 1991). Additional direct effects on transmembrane calcium fluxes may also occur (Monrad et al., 1985). The drug has produced stimulatory effects on calcium ATP-ase (Monrad et al, 1985).
Administration of milrinone in patients with congestive HF produced significant improvement in the indexes of left ventricular diastolic relaxation and filling, which is consistent with an effect on relaxation at the level of the myocardial cell (Monrad et al., 1984). It is speculated that improvement in diastolic function contributes to the hemodynamic improvements observed in congestive heart failure (CHF).
Intravenous milrinone enhanced cardiac performance in CHF patients without producing a systemic increase in myocardial oxygen consumption (Monrad et al., 1985). Cardiac index increased by 45% following doses of 125 μg/kg, with a 39% decrease in pulmonary capillary wedge pressure and a 42% increase in left ventricular external work. The heart rate-blood pressure product and regional left ventricular myocardial oxygen consumption remained unchanged, resulting in a 45% increase in calculated left ventricular external efficiency. Regional great cardiac venous blood flow increased significantly as a result of reductions in regional coronary vascular resistance, and the transcoronary arterial-venous oxygen difference decreased by 11%, which is consistent with the primary coronary vasodilator effects of the drug. It is speculated that milrinone may improve coronary flow reserve by direct coronary vasodilation and/or a reduction in left ventricular diastolic pressure.
Intravenous milrinone produced decreases in left ventricular end-diastolic pressure, pulmonary wedge pressure, right atrial pressure and systemic vascular resistance (Baim et al., 1983). These decreases were associated with a 50% increase in cardiac index, a slight decrease in mean arterial pressure (6%) and a slight increase in resting heart rate (8%). An increase of 28% was observed in the peak positive first derivative of left ventricular pressure (dP/dT), providing evidence of a direct positive inotropic effect. Hemodynamic improvement was sustained during a 24-hour continuous intravenous infusion with milrinone. Another study measured the hemodynamic effects of intravenous milrinone both alone and following autonomic blockade with prazosin, propranolol, atropine, and clonidine (Hasking et al., 1987). Milrinone alone produced increases in heart rate (21 beats/min, maximum) and cardiac output (44%+/−9%) with a reduction in systemic vascular resistance (32%). With autonomic blockade, a smaller rise in heart rate (7 beats/min), no change in cardiac output, and the same reduction in systemic vascular resistance was measured with milrinone. The authors speculate that milrinone increases cardiac output by an indirect mechanism.
Intravenous milrinone enhances atrioventricular conduction and may decrease the incidence of inducable ventricular tachycardia in patients with CHF (Goldstein et al., 1986). Ten patients with class III or IV CHF were given milrinone infusions of 0.5 μg/kg/min. Holter monitoring was performed for 48 hours at baseline and during the infusion of milrinone. The frequency of ventricular premature complexes (PVCs) and ventricular couplets did not significantly change. None of the patients had a proarrhythmic effect, however, the frequency of ventricular tachycardia (VT) increased significantly. On electrocardiogram, the PR, QRS, QTc, AH, and HV intervals were not affected with milrinone. Milrinone also did not affect the heart rate or atrial, atrioventricular and ventricular effective and functional refractory periods. During programmed right ventricular stimulation, 5 patients had inducable VT at baseline, whereas after milrinone therapy none of the patients experienced inducible VT.
A small randomized, controlled study in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB; n=24) suggests that perioperative milrinone may increase cyclic adenosine monophosphate levels and suppress production of certain cytokines, including interleukin-1-beta (IL1-beta) and interleukin-6 (IL6). Inhibition of systemic inflammatory effects during cardiac surgery is thought to have a modulating effect on the immune system that may prevent degradation of organ systems, which in high-risk patients can lead to organ system failure. Study subjects randomized to milrinone received a continuous intravenous infusion at the rate of 0.5 μg/kg/minute for 24 hours from the time of induction of anesthesia. Plasma concentrations of IL1-beta and IL6 were significantly lower in the milrinone group compared with levels in the control group after CPB (p less than 0.05), while concentrations of cyclic adenosine monophosphate were significantly increased in the milrinone group compared to controls (p less than 0.05). No differences were observed for tumor necrosis factor-alpha or interleukin-8 (Hayashida et al., 1999).
One study suggests that milrinone may have efficacy in reducing vasoconstriction of arterial grafts to be used for coronary bypass (He and Yang, 1996). Human internal mammary arterial rings bathed in vitro in potassium chloride (K+), endothelin-1 (ET-1), U46619, and phenylephrine (PE) exhibited significantly less vasoconstricition when pretreated with milrinone.
Short Term Use
Oral milrinone was evaluated in 100 patients with severe. CHF (Baim et al., 1986). Baseline hemodynamic measurements were obtained during right heart catheterization following a single intravenous bolus injection of milrinone (dose not provided). Subsequently, oral milrinone was administered 3 to 6 times daily in a total daily dose of 20 to 50 mg with concomitant digitalis, diuretics, vasodilators, and antiarrhythmics. Patients were evaluated monthly on an outpatient basis. The average dose of oral milrinone was 27 mg/day. Adverse effects occurred in 11% of patients and led to drug withdrawal in 4%. Within 1 month of therapy, 51% of the remaining 94 patients indicated improvement by at least one New York Heart Association functional class. Despite the hemodynamic and clinical improvements, a 39% mortality rate at 6 months and a 63% mortality rate at 1 year of therapy was observed. (NOTE: The oral form of milrinone was withdrawn in 1990).
Ten patients with endstage CHF were maintained as outpatients for 3 months on intermittent lowdose milrinone (Cesario et ed., 1998). This preliminary study enrolled patients who had shown hemodynamic improvement with milrinone during hospitalization. Outpatient doses of milrinone were 0.375 to 0.75 μg/kg/minute infused over 6, 8, or 12 hours via portable infusion pumps on 3 or 4 days per week. Number of hospitalizations dropped fourfold compared with the preceding 3 months. Some hemodynamic, symptomatic, and functional improvement occurred over the study period. Arrhythmia was minimal, with one patient exhibiting an increase; angina was mostly unchanged, although 2 patients reported reduced angina.
Oral milrinone 20 mg daily was associated with improvement in left ventricular function during exercise in patients with CHF (Timmis et al., 1985). The improvement in left ventricular function was reflected by increases in cardiac index and stroke volume index without changes in pulmonary capillary wedge pressure. The drug also increased systemic oxygen consumption and maximal exercise capacity. Beneficial hemodynamic effects were sustained throughout four weeks of treatment with milrinone (Timmis et al., 1985).
Long Term Use
An intermittent dosing protocol of intravenous milrinone in responding patients with endstage CHF (NYHA mean ejection fraction 17%) significantly improved hemodynamic parameters, and at 4 months after withdrawal of milrinone, significant hemodynamic improvements were sustained. The open-label protocol consisted of four 72-hour cycles with 20-day intervals between cycles. The 72-hour cycle was comprised of a loading does of 50 μg/kg over 10 minutes followed by continuous milrinone infusion, 0.5 μg/kg/minute for 72 hours. Hemodynamic measurements at the beginning of the fourth cycle were significantly improved over baseline values: increased cardiac index (CI), decreased mean pulmonary arterial pressure (PAP), decreased mean capillary wedge pressure (PCWP), decreased systemic vascular resistance (SVR), and decreased pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) (p less than 0.01, all parameters). At 4 months after the fourth 72-hour milrinone cycle, significantly improved hemodynamics compared with baseline was maintained: CI, PAP, PCWP, SVR, and PVR (p less than 0.05, all parameters). No deaths occurred during the study (Hatzizacharias et al., 1999).
Intermittent, intravenous outpatient milrinone therapy in refractory HF patients resulted in fewer hospital and emergency room admissions over a 12-month study period compared with the previous 12 months (Marius-Nunez et al., 1996). Thirtysix NYHA functional class III and IV HF patients were given a milrinone loading dose of 50 μg/kg over a 10- to 20-minute period, followed by a constant infusion of 0.5 mg/kg/minute for 4 hours. Some patients received once weekly infusions while most received twice weekly infusions. Comparing the previous year with the 12-month study, emergency room admissions fell from 21 to 10, hospital admissions from 75 to 34, and hospital days from 528 to 150. No serious side effects occurred, although a mild increase in ventricular arrhythmias was associated with milrinone therapy. Survival vs mortality was not an endpoint in this study.
Following median short-term infusion (75 μg/kg at a rate of 100 μg/second), intravenous milrinone produced acute hemodynamic improvement in all of 20 patients with severe CHF, decreasing left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (from 27 to 18 mmHg), pulmonary wedge pressure, right atrial pressure and systemic vascular resistance (Baim et al., 1983). Increases in cardiac index (from 1.9 to 2.9 L/min/m(2)) and the peak positive first derivative of left ventricular pressure were observed. Slight increases were also observed in heart rate, and a slight reduction in mean arterial pressure was noted. Beneficial hemodynamic effects were sustained throughout a subsequent 24-hour continuous infusion (0.25 to 1 μg/kg/min; median dose 0.33 μg/kg/min), suggesting no development of tolerance during this time period. Nineteen patients were given oral milrinone therapy (average dose, 29 mg daily) for up to 11 months (mean 6 months) resulting in sustained improvement of CHF symptoms. No evidence of fever, thrombocytopenia, or gastrointestinal toxicity was seen in the patients. This included one patient who had developed fever and thrombocytopenia on previous oral amrinone therapy. In 10 patients who received the drug for 6 months or longer, continued responsiveness was observed, as evidenced by a 27% increase in left ventricular ejection fraction (by radionuclide ventriculography) following a 7.5 mg oral dose (Baim et al., 1983).
Combination Therapy
The results of a retrospective review suggest that use of intravenous milrinone in combination with an oral beta-blocker may improve the prognosis of patients with severe CHF. In patients with severe CHF (NYHA functional class IV; ejection fraction less than 25%) refractory to oral therapy (ie, digitalis, diuretics, ACE inhibitors), use of low-dose milrinone (0.375 to 0.45 μg/kg/minute) can allow for initiation and up-titration of oral beta-blocker therapy, improvement in NYHA functional class (from IV to II or III), improved survival, reduction in hospitalization, and eventual weaning from milrinone therapy. Milrinone and beta-blockers appear to work synergistically to improve cardiac function in patients with severe CHF and betablockade appears to prevent milrinone-associated QTc interval prolongation (Zewail et al., 2003).
Low Cardiac Output after Cardiac Surgery (Adult)
Milrinone, during short-term therapy, is effective for increasing cardiac index in patients with low cardiac output after cardiac surgery. A significant increase in cardiac index and a fall in pulmonary capillary wedge pressure occurs with infusions during the first 48 hours; however, long-term (mean of 6 months) therapy has induced a greater incidence of morbidity and mortality (Das et al., 1994; Copp et al., 1992; Wright et al., 1992).
Milrinone increased blood flow through newly anastomosed internal mammary artery (IMA) used for coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). In 20 patients undergoing CABG surgery, the left IMA was dissected and grafted to the distal left anterior descending artery. After weaning from cardiopulmonary bypass, patients were given either milrinone 50 μg/kg, over 10 minutes, or an infusion of epinephrine 0.03 μg/kg/minute. Ten minutes after completion of drug administration, IMA flow was measured and compared to that before drug delivery. Flow increased by 24% in milrinone-treated patients (p less than 0.05 compared to baseline) and was unchanged in those receiving epinephrine. Arterial pressure was significantly lower after milrinone infusion than after epinephrine infusion (p less than 0.05). Milrinone was recommended as a firstline inotrope after CABG surgery (Lobato et al., 2000).
Low Cardiac Output after Cardiac Surgery (Paediatric)
Results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial of 238 pediatric patients at high risk for developing low cardiac output syndrome (LCOS) (aged 2 days to 6.9 years) showed that prophylactic use of high-dose milrinone immediately after congenital heart surgery (biventricular repair) reduced the relative risk of developing LCOS by 55% in all patients (p=0.023) and by 64% in 227 patients without protocol violations (p=0.007). Patients were randomized within 90 minutes of arriving to the intensive care unit after surgery into one of three groups: high-dose intravenous (IV) milrinone (60-minute bolus of 75 μg/kg, then 0.75 μg/kg/minute (min) infusion for 35 hours); low-dose IV milrinone (60-minute bolus of 25 μg/kg, then 0.25 μg/kg/min for 35 hours); or placebo. Within 36 hours of receiving the study medication, 9.6% of the high-dose milrinone group developed LCOS (clinical symptoms of tachycardia, oliguria, poor perfusion, or cardiac arrest) requiring additional pharmacotherapy or mechanical support compared to 26.7% in the placebo group (RRR=64%, p=0.007). Although 17.7% of patients in the low-dose milrinone group developed LCOS compared to placebo (RRR=34%, p=0.183), this was not statistically significant. Duration of mechanical ventilation and hospital stay were similar in all groups (p=0.964 and p=0.159, respectively).
Prolonged hospital stays (longer than 15 days) occurred in 13.5% of patients in the high-dose milrinone group, 8.2% in the low-dose milrinone group, and 23.3% of the placebo group (p=0.038). The mean urine output and creatinine clearance were not significantly different between groups: 2.7 milliliters (mL)/kg/hour (hr) and 62.4 mL/min in the high-dose group, 2.9 mL/kg/hr and 66.4 mL/min in the low-dose group, and 2.6 mL/kg/hr and 63.7 mL/min in the placebo group, with neonates having the lowest mean creatinine clearance (37.2 mL/min) compared to children aged 4.8 months to 6 years (84.5 mL/min).
Adverse events commonly reported by adults taking milrinone (arrhythmias, hypotension, and thrombocytopenia) were rare in this pediatric population, with no difference in incidence between milrinone and placebo groups (Hoffman et al., 2003).
Intravenous milrinone produced a mean 12% decrease in blood pressure and an 18% increase in cardiac index in pediatric patients (ages 3 to 22 months; n=20) with low cardiac output after surgical repair of congenital heart defects (p less than 0.05, both values). These cardiovascular effects were associated with an average peak plasma concentration of 235 ng/mL. The investigators recommend a loading dose of 50 μg/kg administered progressively in 5 minutes (after separation from cardiopulmonary bypass), followed by an infusion of approximately 3 μg/kg/min for 30 minutes, and thereafter, a maintenance infusion of 0.5 μg/kg/minute (Bailey et al., 1999).
Milrinone, during short-term therapy, is effective for increasing cardiac index in neonates with low cardiac output following cardiac surgery. In a prospective cohort study involving 10 neonates (ages 3 to 27 days) with low cardiac output after cardiac surgery, patients were administered an intravenous loading dose of 50 μg/kg over 15 minutes followed by a continuous infusion at 0.5 μg/kg/min for 30 minutes. In addition to increasing cardiac index, administration of milrinone decreased filling pressures, systemic and pulmonary arterial pressures, and systemic and pulmonary vascular resistances. Mean heart rate increased after the loading dose, but slowed during the infusion. Milrinone increased heart rate without altering myocardial oxygen consumption (Chang et al., 1995).
Weaning from Cardiopulmonary Bypass
Numerous studies have shown that milrinone is effective for patients being weaned after cardiopulmonary bypass surgery (Lobato et al., 2000; Doolan et al., 1997; Kikura et al., 1997; De Hert et al., 1995; Butterworth et al., 1995).
Milrinone proved efficacious in weaning high risk patients from cardiopulmonary bypass after cardiac surgery (mostly coronary artery bypass grafting). In a double-blind study (Doolan et al., 1997), 30 patients with left ventricular dysfunction and/or pulmonary hypertension were randomized to milrinone (n=15) or placebo (n=15). Milrinone (or placebo) was initiated approximately 15 minutes before the withdrawal of cardiopulmonary bypass with a loading dose of 50 μg/kg over 20 minutes followed by a continuous infusion of 0.5 μg/kg/minute continuing for a minimum of 4 hours. In the milrinone group, all patients were successfully weaned compared with 5 of 15 in the placebo group (p 0.0002). Of the 10 who failed weaning, 4 experienced an increase in mean pulmonary capillary wedge pressure greater than 22 mm Hg for at least 5 minutes; 4 had a greater than 10% decrease in blood pressure from baseline due to cardiac dilatation; and 2 had a reduction in blood pressure greater than 20% from baseline. Milrinone-treated patients had a significantly greater increase in cardiac index than controls (p less than 0.001).
Those who failed to be weaned were subsequently switched to open-label milrinone and were successfully weaned. Ventricular tachycardia of 1 minute duration occurred in a milrinone patient 3 days postoperatively (neither cardioversion or pharmacotherapy were required); no significant adverse effects were associated with milrinone use.
Milrinone improved hemodynamics and cardiac function in patients treated immediately after being weaned from cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) with catecholamines (Kikura et al., 1997). In an open label study, 37 patients having cardiac surgery requiring CPB were randomized to one of the following treatments immediately after being weaned from CPB with the use of norepinephrine, epinephrine, and/or nitroglycerin: control group (no treatment) (n=10); milrinone 50 mg/kg bolus only (n=8); 50 μg/kg bolus plus 0.5 μg/kg/minute (n=10); or 75 μg/kg bolus plus 0.75 μg/kg/minute (n=9). Bolus doses of milrinone were given over 3 minutes. Catecholamine infusions were maintained at a constant rate during the 10-minute study period, and baseline preload was kept constant by volume transfusion from the CPB reservoir. Based on hemodynamic measurements taken at baseline (immediately after weaning from CPB), and at 3, 5, and 10 minutes, cardiac index (CI) and stroke volume index (SVI) increased significantly in all milrinone groups, but not in the control group, with a significant difference between all milrinone groups and controls in CI at 5 and 10 minutes, and in SVI at 10 minutes. No significant differences were observed among the milrinone groups. Echocardiography revealed circumferential fiber shortening increased significantly from baseline in the milrinone groups, but no changes occurred in the control group. Heart rate and mean arterial pressure were not significantly altered in any group. Milrinone improved hemodynamics and cardiac function when given either as a bolus, or as bolus plus infusion, immediately after CPB when preload was kept constant.
Chronic Low Cardiac Output Syndrome
There is evidence to show that treatment with milrinone is effective for increasing cardiac function and for replacing conventional cardiovascular support prior to heart transplantation. Milrinone is effective in lowering pulmonary hypertension and as a diagnostic measure of pulmonary vascular reactivity in patients being evaluated for heart transplantation. Furthermore, short-term and extended-duration milrinone has bridged in-patients with severe heart failure to high-dose oral vasodilator therapy, bringing clinical improvement and delayed need for heart transplantation, as well as survival to transplantation.
A retrospective case review of in-patients with advanced HF suggests that long-term intravenous milrinone is tolerable and enables initiation or up-titration of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and vasodilators without development of detrimental hypotension. Included in the study were 63 NYHA class III/IV patients with mean ejection fraction of 17%. Overall, 58 patients received a milrinone loading dose of 50 μg/kg; mean maintenance dose was 0.43 μg/kg/minute for a mean of 12 days (56 patients received the drug for greater than 48 hr and 28 for 7 days or more). Comparing baseline with 24 hours, mean values for pulmonary systolic and diastolic pressure and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure decreased significantly (p less than 0.0001), resulting in a significant increase in mean cardiac index (p less than 0.001). Systemic vascular resistance declined significantly (p less than 0.05). At 24 hr, significantly more patients were receiving ACE inhibitors than at baseline (p less than 0.01); and mean ACE inhibitor and hydralazine doses were significantly higher at the end of milrinone therapy than at 24 hr (p less than 0.01; p less than 0.03, respectively). The incidence of arrhythmias and clinically significant hypotension was minimal (Milfred-LaForest et al., 1999).
In patients with severe HF being considered for transplantation, short-term intravenous (IV) milrinone improved hemodynamics and facilitated the initiation of high-dose vasodilator therapy, producing symptom improvement, decreased hospitalization, increased survival, and decreased need for cardiac transplantation (Cusick et al., 1998). Fourteen patients (New York Heart Association class III (3) and IV (11)) were given a loading dose of milrinone 50 μg/kg followed by a maintenance infusion of 0.5 μg/kg/minute. If hemodynamic goals were not reached in 4 hours, another bolus (25 to 50 μg/kg) was given and the maintenance infusion rate was increased to 0.85 μg/kg/minute. Mean maximum dose to reach hemodynamic goals was 0.71 μg/kg/minute for an average duration of 50 hours; hemodynamic goals included cardiac index greater than 2.5 L/min/m(2), pulmonary capillary wedge pressure less than 16 mmHg, and systemic vascular resistance less than 1200 dynes/sec/cm(−5). Afterwards, all 14 patients were titrated to high-dose angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (318% dose increase over baseline) and diuretics (89% dose increase over baseline). In some cases, hydralazine was added.
High-dose vasodilator therapy enabled 10 of 14 patients to experience hemodynamic and symptomatic improvement, fewer re-hospitalizations, decreased need for cardiac transplantation, and 12-month survival.
Intravenous milrinone is safe when, used long-term to bridge patients with advanced HF to transplantation (Mehra et al., 1997). Patients in this study were dependent on inotropic therapy (failure to wean on 2 attempts) and all were administered dopamine in addition to milrinone and dobutamine. Eighteen patients were initially stabilized on milrinone with dobutamine added later and 31 were initially stabilized on dobutamine with milrinone added later. Some patients received milrinone for as long as 8 weeks. Hypotension occurred in 5 patients; of these, 4 had renal insufficiency and in one, the adverse effect was thought to be due to a dosing error. Three cases of thrombocytopenia included 2 patients in whom thrombocytopenia was attributed to heparin use and the third did not improve when milrinone was withdrawn. These investigators concluded that milrinone is safe and effective therapeutic support for advanced HF patients awaiting transplantation.
Another study (n=29), with milrinone alone or with milrinone followed by dobutamine or dopamine, if needed, also concluded that long-term milrinone treatment is effective for bridging CHF patients to transplantation. All patients were treated until heart transplantation—a period ranging from 3 to 160 days (average 40 days) (Canver et al., 2000).
Milrinone was found to be effective in lowering pulmonary hypertension and as a diagnostic measure of pulmonary vascular reactivity in patients being evaluated for heart transplantation. A single intravenous bolus of milrinone (50 mg/kg body weight) was infused over 1 minute in 27 patients with New York Heart Association functional class III or IV HF and pulmonary vascular resistance of 200, dynes/s/cm or more referred for heart transplantation. Milrinone decreased pulmonary vascular resistance by a mean 31% at 5 minutes; response occurred maximally 5 to 10 minutes after administration and lasted at least 20 minutes. Effects included an increase in cardiac output, decreases in mean pulmonary arterial pressure and pulmonary artery wedge pressure, and no change in transpulmonary pressure gradient, heart rate, or systemic arterial pressure. Milrinone is a rapid, well-tolerated pharmacologic agent to test for reversibility of pulmonary hypertension in heart transplant candidates (Givertz et al., 1996).
Milrinone was recommended as an effective pharmacologic agent for pulmonary hypertension reversibility assessment in patients with CHF considered to be candidates for cardiac transplantation (Pamboukian et al., 1999). At 15 minutes post-dosing, milrinone 50 mg/kg by bolus produced significant decreases in pulmonary vascular resistance (3.9 to 2.5 Wood units), in mean pulmonary artery pressure (35 to 28 mmHg), and in pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (20 to 15 mmHg) (p=0.002, 0.002, and 0.006, respectively). Cardiac output increased significantly (4.0 to 5.1 L/min; p=0.001). The patients with the most severe pulmonary hypertension had the most pronounced improvements. Of the 19 patients evaluated, 6 received cardiac transplantation, and no deaths were reported among that group.
The utility of treatment with milrinone formulated for IV administration has been demonstrated by years of clinical practise in patients with HF. Whilst an oral formulation of milrinone was recommended for approval for therapeutic intervention of CHF in symptomatic patients, this formulation was eventually withdrawn due to high mortality rates observed during a trial (Packer, et al., 1991, The PROMISE Study). Other formulations such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,806,361, directed to a sustained release formulation using an inert particulate core and U.S. Pat. No. 5,213,811, have similarly not been developed; this may be because of the controversy caused by the PROMISE study or because these formulations failed to provide the required patient exposure to therapeutic agent.
Administration of IV milrinone generally requires the patient to be admitted to a hospital, with a significant increase in cost of patient care; there is also a significant risk of bacterial infection. Whilst it is possible to allow patients to return home and continue with IV milrinone, in practise this is a complex undertaking and the risk of infection remains significant. There is at present no available oral formulation that provides the patient exposure to milrinone that is equivalent to the patient exposure that is achieved by the recommended administration of the IV formulation of milrinone. Such a formulation would overcome the limitations of IV administration, allowing patients to be treated at home. This would significantly reduce the cost of health care and provide a considerable benefit in terms of quality of life to patients with HF.
An aging population combined with life style choices is resulting in an ever increasing incidence of HF amongst the population. Not only will this significantly reduce the quality of life for patients but the burden on hospitalization infrastructure and cost of health care will severely impact on the ability to provide adequate health services to the community. There is a need, therefore, to provide a safe and effective means to treat asymptomatic and symptomatic patients for HF by oral dosage that mimics a plasma infusion profile, which may be easily administered in a non-hospital setting.